Table 2 Summary of developmental effects from in vivo models (7 studies)
Reference | Animal model | PM source | Dose | Route | Duration | Offspring effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tsukue et al. [101] | C57BL/6J mice | Diesel exhaust | 0.3, 1.0, or 3.0 mg DEP/m3 | Inhalation | 4 months pre-mating exposure (12 h/day 7 days/week) | Decreased BW in both sexes; AGD lengths shorter; organ weights less, and vaginal orifices of young females opened significantly earlier (exposed to 0.3 and 1.0 mg DEP/m3) |
Hougaard et al. [81] | C57BL/6J mice | Diesel exhaust particles | ~19 mg/m3 | Inhalation | GD9–GD19 (1 h/day) | Decreased weight gain during lactation; cognitive function and biomarkers were generally similar across offspring |
Gorr et al. [64] | FVB mice | PM2.5 | 51.69 μg/m3 | Inhalation | Gestation/nursing (6 h/day, 7 days/week in utero until weaning at 3 weeks of age) | Reduced birth weight; at adulthood: reduced left ventricular fractional shortening; reduced ejection fraction; increased end-systolic volume; and reduced dP/dt maximum and minimum; alerted cardiomyocytes profiles; increased collagen deposition |
Liu et al. [89] | Sprague Dawley rats | PM2.5 | 15 mg/kg | Intratracheal | GD10 and GD18 | Increased absorbed blastocysts; lower maternal weight gain and fetal weight; significant increase of blood mono- nuclear cells, platelets, and IL-6; placenta pathological examination demonstrated thrombus and chorioamnionitis |
Chen et al. [66] | C57BL/6J mice | Diesel exhaust particles | 8.6 μg/mouse (~160 μg/m3) | Intratracheal | 3 times/week (M/W/F) beginning at 5 weeks and ending at weaning. (as mating started at 12 weeks, there was approximately a 7-week preconceptional instillation) | No impact to birth weight, however exposure significantly decreased offspring body weight from postnatal week 2 until the end of observation; decreased food intake but no alteration in brown adipose tissue |
Chen et al. [87] | C57BL/6J mice | Concentrated ambient particles, PM2.5 | 88.66 μg/m3 | Inhalation | Preconception, pregnancy, and lactation (6 h/day, 5 days/week; no exposure took place during weekends or the day of birth) | Significantly decreased offspring birth weight, but increased body weight of adult male; adult males had increased food intake, but were sensitive to exogenous leptin |
Wu et al. [69] | Sprague Dawley rats | Ultrafine PM, ammonium sulfate | 100 to 200 μg/m3 | Inhalation | Throughout gestation (until GD0-18) | Impacts to prenatal and postnatal organogenesis in offspring; increased stillbirths; reduced gestation length and birth weight; increased concentrations of glucose and free fatty acids in plasma; enhanced lipid accumulation in the liver; decreased endothelium-dependent relaxation of aorta |