Table 1 Study population characteristics by cooking fuel type (N = 164376)
| Â | Total (N (%)) N = 164376 | Clean fuel (%) N = 13794 | Biomass (%) N = 124020 | Charcoal (%) N = 26562 | p value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fuel use (total) | Â | 11.9 | 72.1 | 16.0 | < 0.001 |
Country (year)α | |||||
 Angola | 13706 (8.3) | 5391 (48.9) | 5226 (35.0) | 3089 (16.0) |  |
 Benin | 12632 (7.6) | 396 (2.82) | 9337 (74.4) | 2899 (22.7) |  |
 Burundi | 12728 (7.7) | 20 (0.1) | 10784 (87.4) | 1924 (12.3) |  |
 Ethiopia | 10119 (6.1) | 508 (3.2) | 8705 (92.1) | 906 (4.7) |  |
 Guinea | 7495 (4.5) | 96 (1.4) | 5334 (70.2) | 2065 (28.4) |  |
 Mali | 9496 (5.7) | 134 (0.7) | 7468 (82.4 ) | 1894 (16.8) |  |
 Malawi | 16486 (10.0) | 186 (1.5) | 13809 (83.8) | 2491 (14.6) |  |
 Nigeria | 32133 (19.5) | 2384 (9.1) | 28026 (84.7) | 1723 (6.0) |  |
 Tanzania | 9269 (5.6) | 30 (0.4) | 7228 (75.5) | 2011 (24.1) |  |
 Uganda | 14498 (8.8) | 40 (0.3) | 11368 (76.3) | 3090 (23.3) |  |
 Rwanda | 7469 (4.5) | 14 (0.1) | 6184 (84.4 ) | 1271(15.5) |  |
 South Africaβ | 3289 (2.0) | 2392 (77.1) | 897 (22.8) | - |  |
 Zambia | 9399 (5.7) | 518 (6.5) | 5690 (55.5) | 3191 (37.9) |  |
 Zimbabwe | 5657 (3.4) | 1685 (24.7) | 3964 (75.1) | 8 (0.2) |  |
Child dead | 9478 (5.2) | 529 (8.3) | 7746 (77.4) | 1203 (13.7) | < 0.001 |
Sex of child | Â | Â | Â | Â | 0.799 |
 Male | 83228 (50.7) | 7023 (12.7) | 62716 (71.3) | 13489 (15.9) |  |
 Female | 81148 (49.3) | 6771 (12.5) | 61304 (71.5) | 13073 (15.9) |  |
Residence | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 Urban | 47799 (29.6) | 11467 (35.4) | 18283 (27.7) | 18049 (36.8) |  |
 Rural | 116577 (70.3) | 2327 (3.0) | 105737 (89.8) | 8513 (7.1) |  |
Mother education | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 None | 61018 (34.2) | 1092 (1.9) | 53364 (86.9) | 6562 (11.1) |  |
 Primary | 60357 (37.3) | 2718 (5.3) | 48286 (79.3) | 9353 (15.3) |  |
 Secondary | 37112 (24.9) | 7549 (32.8) | 20602 (45.5) | 8961 (21.6) |  |
 Higher | 5889 (3.5) | 2435 (52.9) | 1768 (19.3) | 1686 (27.7) |  |
Age at first birth (mean (SD)) | 19.4 (0.1) | 20.6 (0.1) | 19.0 (0.02) | 19.8 (0.05) | 0.706 |
Under-five children in household (mean(SD)) | 1.9 (0.08) | 1.7 (0.01) | 2.0 (0.01) | 1.7 (0.01) | < 0.001 |
Mother occupation | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 None | 40055 (30.8) | 4809 (44.9) | 26784 (28.0) | 8462 (32.6) |  |
 Professional | 6295 (3.5) | 1631 (10.5) | 2504 (1.4) | 2160 (7.2) |  |
 Clerical/sales | 30817 16.0) | 3854 (21.7) | 20125 (13.2) | 6838 (24.4) |  |
 Agriculture | 54207 (35.4) | 584 (2.3) | 50082 (46.3) | 3541 (12.0) |  |
 Services | 9710 (6.6) | 1627 (13.9) | 5361 (4.4) | 2722 (11.1) |  |
 Manual | 12487 (7.5) | 762 (6.6) | 8586 (6.5) | 3139 (12.4) |  |
Wealth index | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 Poorest | 41293 (23.2) | 212 (1.5) | 40520 (97.4) | 561 (1.1) |  |
 Poorer | 36916 (21.9) | 927 (6.2) | 32924 (87.4) | 3065 (6.3) |  |
 Middle | 33695 (20.0) | 2900 (12.4) | 26832 (77.7) | 3963 (9.7) |  |
 Richer | 30381 (18.8) | 3565 (17.3) | 19784 (58.2) | 7032 (24.4) |  |
 Richest | 27034 (15.9) | 6320 (27.7) | 7682 (22.9) | 13032 (49.3) |  |
Mother smokes | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 Yes | 1265 (0.8) | 160 (22.0) | 922 (63.9) | 182 (14.1) |  |
 No | 161465 (99.2) | 12414 (10.1) | 122673 (73.3) | 26378 (16.5) |  |
Smoker in household | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 Never | 64687 (37.4) | 6654 (14.6) | 44432 (65.1) | 13601 (20.2) |  |
 Daily | 7247 (4.5) | 495 (14.7) | 5507 (69.7) | 1245 (15.5) |  |
 <1/month | 3920 (2.5) | 278 (9.1) | 2972 (74.1) | 715 (16.7) |  |
 Missing | 93465 (55.4) | 6497 (9.9) | 74876 (76.9) | 12092 (13.1) |  |
Kitchen location | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 In the house | 22547 (15.7) | 6550 (37.7) | 11225 (44.7) | 4772 (17.5) |  |
 Separate building | 32340 (18.5) | 712 (2.2) | 27629 (86.4) | 3999 (11.1) |  |
 Outdoors | 23370 (13.4) | 242 (0.9) | 15775 (66.1) | 7353 (33.0) |  |
 Missing | 91062 (53.7) | 6420 (10.5) | 73113 (76.7) | 11520 (12.8) |  |
Breastfeeding status | Â | Â | Â | Â | < 0.001 |
 Yes | 157027 (94.7) | 11461 (8.5) | 119857 (74.7) | 25709 (16.8) |  |
 No | 7028 (5.2) | 863 (24.8) | 4966 (61.2) | 1199 (13.9) |  |