Table 2 A summary of the health impacts of MNPs reviewed in our study

Blue mussel

4–10 μm

MP

Remain in the body

[21]

2 μm, 100 nm

MP, NP

Abnormal development and deformity were found in both MNP treatment groups, but the growth of mussel larvae was not affected.

[87]

Oyster

160 nm –7.3 μm

MP, NP

No measurable adverse effect on the growth, development, or feeding capacity

[88]

1 μm, 10 μm

MP

2 μm, 6 μm

MP

Significantly reduce the number of follicles and sperm motility in oysters as well as the production and development of offspring larvae

[22]

50 nm

NP

Significant decrease of oyster fertilization rates and embryo–larval development, including many deformities, which results in the complete stagnation of development

[89]

Clam

1.2 μm–5 mm

MNP

No significant difference for the intake and accumulation of MNPs between wild and farmed clams

[91]

Lugworms

10–180 μm

MP

Accumulated plastic particles did not have significant effects on the organisms, nor did they enhance or weaken the bioaccumulation of other chemicals

[93]

200 μm

MP

Growth and photosynthesis were promoted, and the smaller the particle size was, the more obvious the effect was.

[94]

Crepidula onyx

2.0–2.4 mm

MP

Cause abnormal energy consumption

[95]

Daphnia

20–250 mm

MP

Remains in the gut, but there are no acute effects that can be observed

[96]

1 μm, 100 μm

MP

The effect of 1-μm plastic particles on immobilization changed in a time- and dose-dependent manner. However, the 100-μm sized plastic particles could not be ingested, and there was also no significant harmful effect for this size of plastic particles.

[97]

100 nm, 2 μm

MP, NP

The plastic particles of both sizes are easy to ingest, and the uptake of 2-μm particles is 5 times that of 100-nm particles. NP resulted in reduced excretion and ingestion rates, but no adverse effects of MP and NP on reproduction were observed.

[98]

63–75 μm

MP

No increase in adult D. magna mortality after MP exposure, no change in morphology (length, width, and tailbone length), and no harmful effect on reproductive parameters

[96,97,98,99, 124]

Zebrafish

70 nm, 5 μm, 20 μm

MP, NP

5-μm MPs can accumulate in the gills, liver, and gut, but 20-μm MPs could not accumulate in gill tissue. In addition, both 70-nm and 5-μm MPs can induce inflammation and lipid accumulation in the liver, with changes in oxidative stress and lipid energy metabolism

[23]

~70 μm, 0.1 μm, 1.0 μm, 5.0 μm

MP

Causes intestinal damages, including cracking of villi and splitting of enterocytes, but does not or rarely cause zebrafish death. The 1.0-μm particles were highly lethal, had the highest accumulation, the lowest intestinal Ca²⁺ level, and the highest expression of glutathione S-transferase 4

[101]

20–100 nm

NP

Penetrate the choroid membranes of developing zebrafish, accumulate in embryonic tissues, and influence physiology and behavior, leading to inter- or transgenerational toxicity

[102, 103]

Japanese medaka

50–60 μm

MF

Increased oviposition and secondary patellar aneurysms

[35]

Mice

5 μm, 20 μm

MP

Remain in the liver, kidney, and gut; energy and lipid metabolism disorders and liver inflammation

[24]

5 μm, 0.5 μm, 50 μm

MP

Decreased intestinal mucus and significant changes in the richness and diversity of intestinal biota

[26, 27]

38.92 nm

NP

No significant behavioral effects were noted in all neurobehavioral tests. However, some subtle toxic effects, such as decreased locomotor activity, were observed, which provides insight for future studies.

[104]

Human

50–500 μm

MP

Various MPs have been detected in human feces, suggesting that MPs can enter the body through the digestive system and be excreted in feces.

[125]