Table 7 Full multilevel model on household use of appropriate water treatment methods in DHS 2005, 2011, and 2016, Ethiopia

Fixed part

Residency

Rural

1

1

1

Urban

0.86 (0.56, 1.33)

0.56 (0.46, 0.68)*

0.90 (0.70, 1.16)

Education of head

No education

1

1

1

Primary

1.67 (1.24, 2.26)*

1.47 (1.28, 1.69)*

1.84 (1.58, 2.15)*

Secondary

2.32 (1.64, 3.26)*

2.19 (1.80, 2.65)*

2.15 (1.76, 2.62)*

Higher

5.51 (3.63, 8.35)*

2.96 (2.45, 3.57)*

3.01 (2.47, 3.66)*

Wealth status

Poorest

1

1

1

Poorer

1.36 (0.82, 2.25)

1.62 (1.26, 2.09)*

0.90 (0.69, 1.16)

Middle

1.47 (0.88, 2.46)

1.85 (1.43, 2.39)*

1.16 (0.90, 1.50)

Higher

2.24 (1.37, 3.68)*

2.99 (2.36, 3.78) *

1.49 (1.16, 1.90)*

Highest

2.447 (1.41, 4.34)*

5.24 (3.99, 6.88) *

1.55 (1.14, 2.11)*

Water sources

Unimproved

1

1

Improved

0.66 (0.48, 0.91)*

0.63 (0.54, 0.72) *

0.51 (0.44, 0.60)*

Radio ownership

No

1

1

1

Yes

1.39 (1.03, 1.87)*

1.48 (1.31, 1.67) *

1.21 (1.07, 1.38)*

Television ownership

No

1

1

1

Yes

1.52 (1.08, 2.15)*

1.87 (1.59, 2.19) *

1.89 (1.55, 2.30)*

Sex of house head

Female

1

1

1

Male

1.50 (1.17, 1.93)*

1.30 (1.15, 1.47) *

1.24 (1.09, 1.41)*

Presence of under 5-year-old child

No

1

1

1

Yes

1.02 (0.81, 1.28)

1.06 (0.95, 1.19)

1.07 (0.95, 1.20)*

0.39 (0.14, 1.07)

0.17 (0.07, 0.41)

0.11 (0.04, 0.27)